Education
French centers of learning, beginning with the French universities of the Middle Ages, particularly in the University of Paris, founded in the 12th century, and continuing down to the modern universities and technical schools, all have served as academic models throughout the world. Among the French educators who had notable influence are Peter Abelard in the 12th century, Michel de Montaigne in the 16th century, François Fénelon and Jean Jacques Rousseau in the 18th century, and Victor Cousin in the 19th century.
The centralization of school administration, with the state as the fundamental power in education, evolved under the leadership of Napoleon between 1806 and 1808. The modern educational system is based on laws enacted between 1881 and 1886 under the influence of Jules Ferry, minister of education. These laws provided for free, compulsory public education entirely under government control. Among later modifications were the establishment of free tuition in secondary and technical schools; the separation of church and state in education in 1905; the legislation of aid to private schools, including those with religious affiliations, in 1951 and 1959; and, in 1959, the extension of compulsory school attendance to the age of 16. In response to strong student demands, educational reforms were approved in 1968 by President Charles de Gaulle and his cabinet. Specifically, the new system did away with the control of budgets, curricula, and hiring throughout the nation by the ministry of education. Instead, it established educational units at various levels, gave faculties control of hirings and promotions, and gave students a greater voice in university life. The authority of university professors occupying lifetime chairs to vote on new appointments was abolished, and the establishment of more democratic departmental structures on a subject basis was indicated for universities. Several of the large universities were restructured into smaller units, and the number of French universities increased from 23 to about 70 in the 1980s.
Economy
France, once primarily agricultural, has become increasingly industrialized since World War II (1939-1945). During the postwar period, the government instituted a series of wide-ranging plans designed to foster national recovery and increase governmental direction of the economy. Included in the so-called Monnet plans was the principle of nationalization of certain industries, notably railroad and air transportation systems, major banks, and coal mines. The government, in addition, became a major shareholder in the automotive, electronics, and aircraft industries, as well as the primary investor in the development of both oil and natural-gas reserves. Partly as a result of such plans and programs, the national product of France increased by nearly 50 percent between 1949 and 1954, by 46 percent between 1956 and 1964, and at an average annual rate of 3.8 percent during the 1970s. In 1981 the new Socialist government began a major program of nationalizing industries; the election of a conservative government in 1986, however, led to a reduction of the state role in the economy. In 1992 France's gross domestic product totaled $1.27 trillion, or about $22,060 per capita. The national budget included $169.6 billion in revenues and $184.5 billion in expenditures.
Climate
The climate of France is generally temperate, but wide regional contrasts occur, as in the Mediterranean coastal area, where semitropical conditions prevail, and in the plateau and eastern highlands regions, where the climate is uniformly bleak. Temperatures along the Atlantic seaboard are equalized by ocean currents and the prevailing southwestern winds. In the interior, particularly the northeastern region, severe winters and hot summers are usual. The mean temperature in Paris is 3° C (37° F) in January and 18° C (64° F) in July. At Lyon, the January average is the same as in Paris, and the July temperature is 20° C (68° F). Precipitation is 573 mm (22.6 in) per year in Paris, and 764 mm (30.1 in) annually in Lyon. The heaviest rainfalls occur in June and October. Regional variations in precipitation range between 1397 mm (55 in) annually in the mountainous areas and 254 mm (10 in) annually in certain northern lowland areas. One of the meteorological peculiarities of southern France is the mistral, a violent northern wind of the Mediterranean region, originating in the central plateau region.
List of Universities in FRANCE
North America
North America
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